Wicked Problems: Structuring Social Messes with Morphological Analysis
If you work in an organisation that deals with long-term social, commercial or financial planning, then you've got wicked problems! You may not call them by this name, but you know what they are. They are those complex, ever changing societal and organisational planning problems that you haven't been able to treat with much success, because you haven't even been able to structure and define them properly. They're messy, devious, and they fight back when you try to "solve" them.
In 1973, Horst Rittel and Melvin Webber, both urban planners at the University of Berkley, wrote an article for Policy Sciences with the astounding title "Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning". In this landmark article, the authors observed that there is a whole realm of social planning problems that cannot be successfully treated with traditional linear, analytical approaches. They called these wicked problems, in contrast to tame problems.
A year later, in his book "Re-designing the Future", Ackoff (1974) essentially put forward the same concept (although in less detail), which he called a "mess", and which later became a "social mess" (Horn, 2001).
Although we are wiser today, and less susceptible to the belief that complex social planning problems can be "solved" by one-shot methods and magic bullets, it is instructive to look at the original formulation of the distinction between "wicked" and "tame" problems.
First, let's look at what characterises a tame problem (Conklin, J, 2001, p.11). A tame problem
- has a relatively well-defined and stable problem statement.
- has a definite stopping point, i.e. we know when the solution is reached.
- has a solution which can be objectively evaluated as being right or wrong.
- belongs to a class of similar problems which can be solved in a similar manner.
- has solutions which can be tried and abandoned.
- comes with a limited set of alternative solutions.
Wicked problems are completely different. Wicked problems are ill-defined, ambiguous and associated with strong moral, political and professional issues. They are also stakeholder dependent: there is little consensus about what the problem is, let alone how to resolve it.
Furthermore, wicked problems won't keep still: they are sets of complex, interacting issues evolving in a dynamic social context. Often, new forms of wicked problems emerge while you are trying to understand and solve one of them.
The most evident, and important, wicked problems are complex, long-term social and organisational planning problems.
Examples of these are:
* How should we fight the "War on Terrorism?"
* What is a good national immigration policy
* How should scientific and technological development be governed?
* How should we deal with crime and violence in our schools?
* How should our organisation develop in the face of an increasingly uncertain future?
"The classical systems approach ... is based on the assumption that a planning project can be organized into distinct phases: 'understand the problems', 'gather information,' 'synthesize information and wait for the creative leap,' 'work out solutions' and the like. For wicked problems, however, this type of scheme does not work. One cannot understand the problem without knowing about its context; one cannot meaningfully search for information without the orientation of a solution concept; one cannot first understand, then solve." (Rittel & Webber, 1974, p. 161)
Rittel and Webber characterise wicked problems by the following 10 criteria. (When partaking of these criteria, the reader should attempt to put her/himself in the context of the obvious frustration expressed by these urban planners and policy makers.)
1. There is no definite formulation of a wicked problem.
"The information needed to understand the problem depends upon one's idea for solving it. This is to say: in order to describe a wicked problem in sufficient detail, one has to develop an exhaustive inventory for all the conceivable solutions ahead of time."
[Note: this is explicitly what computer-aided General Morphological Analysis (GMA) was designed to do. GMA results in an inference model which strives to represent the total problem space, as many of the potential solutions to the given problem complex as possible (Ritchey, 1998).]
2. Wicked problems have no stopping rules.
In solving a tame problem, "... the problem-solver knows when he has done his job. There are criteria that tell when the solution, or a solution, has been found". With wicked problems you never come to a "final", "complete" or "fully correct" solution - since you have no objective criteria for such. The problem is continually evolving and mutating. You stop when you run out of resources, when a result is subjectively deemed "good enough" or when we feel "we've done what we can..."
3. Solutions to wicked problems are not true-or-false, but better or worse.
The criteria for judging the validity of a "solution" to a wicked problem are strongly stakeholder dependent. However, the judgments of different stakeholders ..."are likely to differ widely to accord with their group or personal interests, their special value-sets, and their ideological predilections." Different stakeholders see different solutions as simply better or worse.
4. There is no immediate and no ultimate test of a solution to a wicked problem.
"... any solution, after being implemented, will generate waves of consequences over an extended - virtually an unbounded - period of time. Moreover, the next day's consequences of the solution may yield utterly undesirable repercussions which outweigh the intended advantages or the advantages accomplished hitherto."
"... every implemented solution is consequential. It leaves "traces" that cannot be undone ... And every attempt to reverse a decision or correct for the undesired consequences poses yet another set of wicked problems ... ."
6. Wicked problems do not have an enumerable (or an exhaustively describable) set of potential solutions, nor is there a well-described set of permissible operations that may be incorporated into the plan.
"There are no criteria which enable one to prove that all the solutions to a wicked problem have been identified and considered. It may happen that no solution is found, owing to logical inconsistencies in the 'picture' of the problem."
7. Every wicked problem is essentially unique.
"There are no
classes of wicked problems in the sense that the principles of solution can be developed to fit all members of that class." ...Also, ..."Part of the art of dealing with wicked problems is the art of not knowing too early which type of solution to apply."
[In morphological analysis, we call this "remaining in the mess", i.e. keeping one's options open long enough to explore as many relationships in the problem topology as possible, before starting to formulate solutions. This can be a frustrating process for "problem solvers", but is an absolutely necessary procedure when working with wicked problems.]
8. Every wicked problem can be considered to be a symptom of another [wicked] problem.
Also, many internal aspects of a wicked problem can be considered to be symptoms of other internal aspects of the same problem. A good deal of mutual and circular causality is involved, and the problem has many causal levels to consider. Complex judgements are required in order to determine an appropriate level of abstraction needed to define the problem
9. The causes of a wicked problem can be explained in numerous ways. The choice of explanation determines the nature of the problem's resolution.
"There is no rule or procedure to determine the 'correct' explanation or combination of [explanations for a wicked problem]. The reason is that in dealing with wicked problems there are several more ways of refuting a hypothesis than there are permissible in the [e.g. physical] sciences."
10. [With wicked problems,] the planner has no right to be wrong.
In "hard" science, the researcher is allowed to make hypotheses that are later refuted. Indeed, it is just such hypothesis generation that is a primary motive force behind scientific development (Ritchey, 1991). Thus one is not penalised for making hypothesis that turn out to be wrong. "In the world of ... wicked problems no such immunity is tolerated. Here the aim is not to find the truth, but to improve some characteristic of the world where people live. Planners are liable for the consequences of the actions they generate ..."
* * *
Of course, problems can be designated as "wicked" and "tame" only a potiori. In reality there would seem to be some sort of stepped scale between tameness and wickedness. However, we can clearly identify really wicked problems on the basis of how they figure in the ten criteria outlined above: they are those complex social and organizational planning problems that we deem important, but which we have been unable to do much about because we cannot get a handle on them. It is not only that they are complex; they are "wicked" in the sense of being ambiguous, devious and seeming to actively resist being solved. Like the hydra, you chop off one problem, and two more pop up to take its place.
How, then, does one treat wicked problems? There are no "sure-thing" procedures, but experience has shown that the following ingredients are crucial:
* First, recognise the problem as "wicked". Don't try to "tame" it. Treat it for what it is.
* Treat it by way of an adaptive and iterative process, especially repeated cycles of (problem) analysis and (solution) synthesis (Ritchey, 1991).
* Engage as many stakeholders as possible in the work, in order to create a common terminology, problem concept and modelling framework.
* Bring central stakeholders - with subject specialist knowledge - together in a series of workshops to collectively structure the problem space, explore multiple solutions, and analyze stakeholder structures. The different stakeholders do not have to agree on a single, common solution, but must be encouraged to understand each other's positions and contexts.
The concept of wicked problems, as well as Ackoff's concept of social messes, has had considerable influence on the development of operational research (OR) methods during the past 30 years, especially as concerns problem structuring when confronted with so-called soft OR problems. Some 20 years after Rittel & Webber wrote their article, Rosenhead (1996) presented the following procedures for dealing with complex social planning problems:
* accommodate multiple alternative perspectives rather than prescribe single solutions
* function through group interaction and iteration rather than back office calculations
* generate ownership of the problem formulation through transparency
* facilitate a graphical (visual) representation for the systematic, group exploration of a solution space
* focus on relationships between discrete alternatives rather than continuous variables
* concentrate on possibility rather than probability
Group facilitated General Morphological Analysis was designed explicitly to meet these requirements (Ritchey, 2002).
References
Ackoff, R (1974). Re-defining the Future. Wiley: London.
Conklin, J. (2001). "Wicked Problems and Social Complexity." CogNexus Institute. [Online]. Available from the World Wide Web: cognexus.org/wpf/wickedproblems.pdf.
Horn, R (2001). Knowledge Mapping for Complex Social Messes. A presentation to the "Foundations in the Knowledge Economy" at the David and Lucile Packard Foundation. [Online] Available on the World Wide Web: www.stanford.edu/~rhorn/a/recent/spchKnwldgPACKARD.pdf.
Poppendieck, M (2002). "Wicked Problems". Poppendieck.LLC. [Online]. Available from the World Wide Web: www.poppendieck.com/wicked.htm.
Ritchey, T. (1991). "Analysis and Synthesis - On Scientific Method based on a Study by Bernhard Riemann". Syst Res 8(4):21-41. (Revised 1996) [Online]. Available from the World Wide Web: www.swemorph.com/pdf/anaeng-r.pdf.
Ritchey, T. (1998). "Morphological Analysis - A general method for non-quantified modeling". Adapted from a paper presented at the 16th Euro Conference on Operational Analysis. [Online]. Available from the World Wide Web: www.swemorph.com/pdf/gma.pdf.
Ritchey, T. (2002). "Modelling Complex Socio-Technical Systems using Morphological Analysis." Adapted from an address to the Swedish Parliamentary IT Commission, Stockholm, December 2002. [Online]. Available from the World Wide Web: www.swemorph.com/pdf/it-webart.pdf.
Rittel, H., and Webber, M. (1973). "Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning". Policy Sciences, Vol. 4, pp 155-169. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Inc: Amsterdam.
Rosenhead,. J. (1996). What's the problem? An introduction to problem structuring methods. Interfaces 26(6):117-131.
About the Author
Dr. Tom Ritchey is a Research Director at the Department for Technology Foresight and Assessment, at the Swedish Defence Research Agency in Stockholm. He maintains the Swedish Morphological Society's website at: www.swemorph.com.
|